Judith Russenberger

Green Tau issue 109

27th June 2025

Tipping Points

Four years ago I wrote about the tipping points likely accelerate the climate crisis. In June 2021 the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere stood at 418.93 parts per million (ppm). As of May 2025 the concentration of carbon dioxide stands at 430.51 ppm (https://gml.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/mlo.html) As the safe level of carbon dioxide lies somewhere between 280 and 350ppm, we were clearly in a danger zone in 2021, since when things have got worse rather than better.

Here is the 2021 article, below which is a comment from the Ecologist journal as to where we currently stand vis a vis the likelihood of triggering any or all of the global climate tipping points and another article from the Guardian.

In Alan Stoppard’s play Jumpers, George Moore, a philosophy professor, muses that at some point in history, the balance of believers versus non believers tipped from the former being the majority to the latter. He suspected it was the decline in woollen socks in preference for nylon ones that precipitated this tipping point: woollen socks kept the wearer in mind of the link between nature and daily life and thus a link between a divine creator and daily life.

We have seen a number of social issues reach a tipping point: the acceptability or not of smoking, the acceptability or not of drink-driving, the use of plastic bags versus reusable versions, and most recently the wearing of face masks. At some point social pressure, social acceptance and/ or social understanding shifted in favour of a new status quo. Social norms are not fixed and what interests me is what initiates and sustains the sequence of changes that lead us to change our patterns of behaviour and belief.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is increasingly concerned that the current rate of global warming could reach a number of tipping points. One such scenario centres on the Arctic. As temperatures increase so the frozen soil have melted – not just the surface levels which is ‘normal’ but also the deeper levels of the permafrost. As they melt they release methane locked away for thousands of years ago. This flammable gas has led to outbreaks of wild fires across the Arctic destroying large areas of the tundra’s flora and fauna. Methane is one of the greenhouse gases and has a warming effect on the climate 80 times that of carbon dioxide. The melting of the permafrost in the Arctic disproportionately adds to the heating of the global environment and to the consequential further melting of frozen soils as well as sea ice. In other words the rise in temperatures that allows the Artic to thaw triggers a sequence of events that leads to a further upward spiralling of temperatures.

Other tipping points have also been observed: in Greenland where the more the ice-sheet melts the faster is the rate of melting in subsequent years, leading both to rising sea levels and a likely reversal of the Gulf Stream*; in the Amazon the loss of rainforest (due to commercial felling) is expanding the area of land covered by Savannah grass lands causing rising air temperatures and depleting levels of rainfall which both threatened the natural regeneration of the rainforest; in the tropics rising sea temperatures bleach coral reefs as plant and animal life grows more slowly or dies off completely. As these living forms die so they absorb less carbon dioxide which in turn compounds rising air and sea temperatures.

Worryingly the danger presented by such scenarios doesn’t become apparent until the tipping point has been reached! This means preventative action needs to be taken before the affects of the danger are felt. We have in recent months learnt the lesson that the way to limit rocketing covid infections is to follow lockdown procedures before the number of cases becomes unmanageable. Can we do the same to prevent the extreme effects of climate change? Can we as individuals rapidly decarbonise our lifestyles now to safeguard the future for ourselves and our grandchildren? Can we create the social groundswell needed to make a carbon neutral lifestyle the norm? Can we create the popular groundswell to change the direction of our political leaders?

Rather than the Gulf Stream, the tipping point now being highlighted by scientists is the loss of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation or AMOC. It’s loss would lead to a rapidly cooling climate for the British Isles. (for more information see https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/oct/23/we-dont-know-where-the-tipping-point-is-climate-expert-on-potential-collapse-of-atlantic-circulation?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other)

“Multiple climate tipping points are likely to be triggered if global policies stay on their current course, new research shows.

Scientists assessed the risk of tipping in 16 different parts of the Earth system – ranging from the collapse of major ice sheets to the dieback of tropical coral reefs and vast forests.

Their most conservative estimate is a 62 per cent risk of triggering these tipping points on average, based on current policies and the resulting global warming.

However, more sustainable future pathways – with lower greenhouse gas emissions – significantly reduce the risk of tipping points.

The study, by the universities of Exeter and Hamburg, also found that carbon released by certain tipping points – Amazon rainforest dieback and permafrost thaw – is unlikely to cause enough warming to trigger other tipping points.

“The good news from our study is that the power to prevent climate tipping points is still in our hands,” said lead author Jakob Deutloff.

“By moving towards a more sustainable future with lower emissions, the risk of triggering these tipping points is significantly reduced.” https://theecologist.org/2025/may/21/cascading-climate-tipping-points-likely

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2025/jun/28/tipping-points-social-expert-on-fixing-climate-crisis?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other

Counting on … day 96

26th June 2025

Expanding access to clean, affordable and sustainable electricity to everyone is one of the UN’s development goals.

The following comes from a report by the Prometheus Institute

“Delivering universal access to “affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all” by 2030 has become a prominent global target under goal 7 of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Great progress has been made in recent years according to the 2024 State of the Global Mini-Grids Market (SOTM) Report, which found the number of people without electricity fell by 466 million between 2010 and 2021. Mini-grids have been a key driver towards greater energy access, with installations in 2024 set to be over six times higher than in 2018.

“The UN has nonetheless predicted that 660 million people around the world will still lack access to electricity by 2030, with Sub-Saharan Africa particularly in need of accelerated efforts.” (1)

Projects to meet these goals need to be financed.

This month the United Nations Development Programme noted that:-“As the global community prepares to convene in Sevilla for the Fourth International Conference on Financing for Development (FFD4) later this month, one question looms large: how can we mobilize the capital needed to deliver sustainable development in a world of constrained public finance?

“Africa offers a critical part of the answer.

“This week, UNDP launched the Fourth Africa Investment Insights Report—a data-rich guide to 250 real, investable opportunities across 20 countries. These projects span sectors such as renewable energy, health care, agriculture and inclusive infrastructure. Each one combines strong commercial potential with measurable development impact.

“This is not charity. It is strategic investment aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).” (2)

Whilst Climate Home News reported:-

“Climate negotiators in Bonn have been tasked with taking a “deep dive” into how a roadmap to boost climate finance for developing countries should look, so that it can be finalised at COP30 in Brazil –

“… At the start of the mid-year talks, UN climate chief Simon Stiell advised governments that the roadmap for mobilising $1.3 trillion a year by 2035 should not be “just a report, but a how-to guide with clear next steps on dramatically scaling up climate finance and investment”.

“That will mean reconciling widely divergent views among countries about what sources of finance the roadmap should draw on – and what form the money should come in…The “Baku to Belém Roadmap to 1.3T” was launched as part of the new climate finance goal (the NCQG) agreed at COP29, with a commitment for donors to raise $300 million annually – largely from the public purse – at its core.

“One main unresolved rift is that developing countries wanted the $1.3 trillion to consist of public money from rich nations – In general, developing countries have requested that the $1.3 trillion should consist of new money that is not re-labelled from other budgets, with public grant money as the bulk of it, excluding loans and other forms of debt.” (3)

Knowing what needs to be done – and knowing how it can be done – is not the same as being willing to pay for what needs to be done.

Counting on … day 95

25th June 2025

Bigger scale, but nevertheless off grid, solar energy systems have been built and are being used in developing countries. The university of Southampton has been involved in pioneering mini grids which provide solar powered electricity and batteries that allow whole communities including schools, clinics and businesses to have 24 access to electricity. Some of the projects double up as units that collect and store rain water during the rainy season to provide the communities with water.

Their website provides details of schemes that have been up and running for more than 10 years

https://energy.soton.ac.uk/mini-grids-and-resilient-networks/

Counting on … day 94

24th June 2025

Solar Aid is a charity that aims to provide people in developing countries with access to lighting (using LEDs) to communities that a) do not have access to the grid and b) cannot afford household sized solar panels. They describe their project as follows:-

“Just as mobile phones have revolutionised communications across Africa, leapfrogging the need for landlines, picosolar lights (aka small solar lights) are now helping to bring light and power to millions of people across the continent.

“While grid electrification is not going to reach most of rural sub-Saharan Africa in our lifetimes, the solar light revolution is taking place right now, helping light up millions of homes, which would otherwise be kept in the dark.

“The concept is simple: Small solar panels, which can be as small as the palm of your hand, convert sunlight into electricity. This in turn charges small batteries, which are used to power efficient LED lights…For the first time, families can stop using dangerous, polluting kerosene lamps and candles.” (1)

That many communities cannot even afford this form of lighting, is the reason that this charity looks to people like us to provide the money.

https://solar-aid.org/bright-solutions/the-solar-light/

Counting on … day 93

23rd June 2025

Developing countries have a growing need for energy but that should not be seen as an opportunity to promote fossil fuels – to do so traps those countries in the fossil fuel system. Rather these countries should be afforded the opportunity of developing systems that use clean renewable energy – wind and solar, electric vehicles, electric (or direct solar) cooking facilities etc.

“In the coming years most of the additional demand for new electricity will come from low- and middle-income countries; we have the opportunity now to ensure that much of the new power supply will be provided by low-carbon sources.” (1)

Such clean renewable energy will also be a) cheaper and b) afford the countries energy security as they will not be reliant on imported oil and gas – or even if they have indigenous supplies, not subject to the fluctuating prices for fossil fuels set by global markets.

For a report from this year’s IEA summit: “Participants at the Summit emphasised the importance of energy access and affordability as fundamental to national and international security. With nearly 700 million people worldwide still lacking electricity and over 2 billion without access to clean cooking, addressing energy poverty was highlighted throughout the Summit as a key challenge to overcome. Delegates acknowledged that affordability concerns are growing even in advanced economies, where low-income households are disproportionately affected by energy costs.” (2)

(1) https://www.climatechangenews.com/2025/05/30/civil-society-groups-push-back-on-fossil-gas-funding-as-african-development-bank/

(2) https://www.iea.org/news/at-london-summit-energy-sector-leaders-usher-in-a-new-era-of-energy-security

More info https://www.who.int/news/item/12-06-2024-progress-on-basic-energy-access-reverses-for-first-time-in-a-decade

Proper 7, 1st Sunday after Trinity

22nd June 2025

Reflection with readings below

Today’s readings from the First Testament encourage us to turn to God, to seek God’s help in times of strife – and goodness are we not in a world best by strife? Turning to to God in prayer is a sound response.

Why? Because you will find strength and comfort through articulating and sharing your concerns with God. Because prayer helps us understand and to increase our awareness of the issue and of ways in which we might be part of the solution.

Paul’s letter to the Galatians is a timely reminder that we are all equally created by God. God does not divide people into groups that are honoured or despised, more important or less important, more loved or less loved. Any divisions we see are human-made. The passage should also remind us that God, having made all created things, saw that they were all good. Not just humans but creatures too. Not just humans, but plants too. Not just humans, but ecosystems too. When we elevate ourselves above the rest of creation, seeing ourselves as more honoured, more important and more beloved by God, then we become careless and destructive, greedy and thoughtless – we become the cause of harm and violence, damaging and destroying the world in which we live. As baptised Christians, we all called to treat all with equality and consideration and love.

Today’s gospel is a wonderful story of compassion and healing, of freedom and new beginnings. It is also a story about community and togetherness.

What is the difference between the words ‘ill’ and ‘well’? The former is begins with ‘I’ and the letter with ‘we’. Isolated, focused only on ourself and our own needs: we are ill. Together we can support and nurture one another; we consider the needs of our group and we gain from what the group offers; we are well.

In this story we Jesus as the transformative agent who releases Legion from all that ensares him, then he restores him not just to his right mind but to his community. Can we follow this example? Can we help release people from fears and systems that trap them? Can we restore communities, ensuring everyone is included and made welcome? Can we restore relations not just with people but with creatures and plants? Can we restore damaged ecosystems re-establishing sustainable relationships between all component parts?

Isaiah 65:1-9

I was ready to be sought out by those who did not ask,
to be found by those who did not seek me.

I said, “Here I am, here I am,”
to a nation that did not call on my name.

I held out my hands all day long to a rebellious people,

who walk in a way that is not good,
following their own devices;

a people who provoke me
to my face continually,

sacrificing in gardens
and offering incense on bricks;

who sit inside tombs,
and spend the night in secret places;

who eat swine’s flesh,
with broth of abominable things in their vessels;

who say, “Keep to yourself,
do not come near me, for I am too holy for you.”

These are a smoke in my nostrils,
a fire that burns all day long.

See, it is written before me:
I will not keep silent, but I will repay;

I will indeed repay into their laps
their iniquities and their ancestors’ iniquities together,

says the Lord;

because they offered incense on the mountains
and reviled me on the hills,

I will measure into their laps
full payment for their actions.

Thus says the Lord:

As the wine is found in the cluster,
and they say, “Do not destroy it,
for there is a blessing in it,”

so I will do for my servants’ sake,
and not destroy them all.

I will bring forth descendants from Jacob,
and from Judah inheritors of my mountains;

my chosen shall inherit it,
and my servants shall settle there.

Psalm 22:18-27

18 Be not far away, O Lord; *
you are my strength; hasten to help me.

19 Save me from the sword, *
my life from the power of the dog.

20 Save me from the lion’s mouth, *
my wretched body from the horns of wild bulls.

21 I will declare your Name to my brethren; *
in the midst of the congregation I will praise you.

22 Praise the Lord, you that fear him; *
stand in awe of him, O offspring of Israel;
all you of Jacob’s line, give glory.

23 For he does not despise nor abhor the poor in their poverty;
neither does he hide his face from them; *
but when they cry to him he hears them.

24 My praise is of him in the great assembly; *
I will perform my vows in the presence of those who worship him.

25 The poor shall eat and be satisfied,
and those who seek the Lord shall praise him: *
“May your heart live for ever!”

26 All the ends of the earth shall remember and turn to the Lord, *
and all the families of the nations shall bow before him.

27 For kingship belongs to the Lord; *
he rules over the nations.

Galatians 3:23-29

Now before faith came, we were imprisoned and guarded under the law until faith would be revealed. Therefore the law was our disciplinarian until Christ came, so that we might be justified by faith. But now that faith has come, we are no longer subject to a disciplinarian, for in Christ Jesus you are all children of God through faith. As many of you as were baptised into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus. And if you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham’s offspring, heirs according to the promise.

Luke 8:26-39

Jesus and his disciples arrived at the country of the Gerasenes, which is opposite Galilee. As he stepped out on land, a man of the city who had demons met him. For a long time he had worn no clothes, and he did not live in a house but in the tombs. When he saw Jesus, he fell down before him and shouted at the top of his voice, “What have you to do with me, Jesus, Son of the Most High God? I beg you, do not torment me” — for Jesus had commanded the unclean spirit to come out of the man. (For many times it had seized him; he was kept under guard and bound with chains and shackles, but he would break the bonds and be driven by the demon into the wilds.) Jesus then asked him, “What is your name?” He said, “Legion”; for many demons had entered him. They begged him not to order them to go back into the abyss.

Now there on the hillside a large herd of swine was feeding; and the demons begged Jesus to let them enter these. So he gave them permission. Then the demons came out of the man and entered the swine, and the herd rushed down the steep bank into the lake and was drowned.

When the swineherds saw what had happened, they ran off and told it in the city and in the country. Then people came out to see what had happened, and when they came to Jesus, they found the man from whom the demons had gone sitting at the feet of Jesus, clothed and in his right mind. And they were afraid. Those who had seen it told them how the one who had been possessed by demons had been healed. Then all the people of the surrounding country of the Gerasenes asked Jesus to leave them; for they were seized with great fear. So he got into the boat and returned. The man from whom the demons had gone begged that he might be with him; but Jesus sent him away, saying, “Return to your home, and declare how much God has done for you.” So he went away, proclaiming throughout the city how much Jesus had done for him.

The Lord is my shepherd – a retelling of psalm 23

21st July 2025

He tends His flock like a shepherd; He gathers the lambs in His arms and carries them close to His heart. He gently leads the nursing ewes. Isaiah 40: 11

You Lord, are the source of all good things:

We praise you.

You call us to tend and care for your creation:

May we strive to do your will.

You have made us as brothers and sisters with all that lives:

May we live together in peace.

A reflection on Psalm 23:

The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want.

In your gift is daily bread, sustenance for each day

From you comes wisdom and understanding –

the gift of peace.

The Lord desires green pasture and clear waters,

wooded hills that clap their hands,

streams that overflow with joy –

a world where all may rest in peace.

The Lord restores my soul,

forgives my sins and heals my pain.

He renews my confidence so I too

may renew broken relationships.

The Lord leads me in right paths.

He goes before us, leading by example

and marking the way –

on earth as in heaven.

Even though I walk through the darkest valley,

even though the news is of floods and drought,

fires and tempest, I am comforted

for the Lord is my steadfast companion.

I hear of evil – of warfare and greed,

of persecution and oppression;

of self-interest and self-delusion

– yet I fear not evil, for the Lord is our righteousness.

You prepare a table before me

where bread and wine will satisfy my wants.

In the face of adversity,

You anoint me with the Holy Spirit.

The goodness and mercy of the Lord

shall stay with me all the days of my life,
for the Lord is my shepherd

and I shall not want.

Prayers:

Holy God, Shepherd of your people,

forgive us for all the times we have strayed –

and repeatedly strayed –

from your ways.

Set us once again on the right path,

the path of righteousness.

Show us how to love our neighbour as ourself.

Show us how to lead simple lives

that do not steal food and resources

from the mouths of the poor.

Show us how to tend and care for the earth

that the fertility of the soils and the vitality

of pollinating insects will be restored.

Show us how to curb our greed

that there may be an equal sharing of the earth’s gifts

and equitable pay for all who labour.

Show us how to unite all our brethren

in eschewing the use of fossil fuels

that global temperatures can be contained.

Show us how to make space for others

that migrants both human and creaturely

may have space to call their own.

Amen.

Counting on …day 92

20th June 2025

One of the low carbon products that Shell – and other companies – deal in are carbon credits. Shell presents these as part of a cascade to reduce emissions:-

Avoid creating emissions
Reduce emissions
Compensate for remaining emissions through the use of carbon credits as not all industries can decarbonise at the same rate, with heavy industry and transport often utilising carbon credits to achieve net-zero goals.
We actively participate in carbon markets, and have a diverse portfolio of high-quality carbon credits to help our customers reduce their carbon footprint (1)

“Carbon credits essentially represent metric tons of carbon. Simply put, one carbon credit allows or offsets one metric ton of carbon emissions.

The carbon market is where carbon credits are bought and sold. There are two kinds of carbon markets: Compliance Carbon Markets (otherwise known as Regulatory Markets) and Voluntary Carbon Markets (VCM). While carbon credits for the compliance market are government regulated, carbon offsets for the VCM are not. That doesn’t mean that they’re not vetted – simply that they’re just verified by third parties…Third-party entities are non-profit organizations that ensure that customers receive what they are paying for. They measure the amount of carbon offset through an environmental project and interpret the data, giving any offset project with their seal a green light for approval.” (2)

There are three basic types of carbon credits:

Those from reduced emissions (typically energy efficiency measures)
Removed emissions (carbon capture and planting forests)
And avoided emissions (for example refraining from cutting down rainforests).(3)

Examples of the first can include capturing methane from landfill and agricultural waste and using g it as a biofuel. Or they might include providing disadvantaged families with more fuel efficient cooking or lighting equipment.

Example of the second might include reforestation, restoring peat bogs and wetlands.

Examples of the third might include making payments to farmers not to cut down prime forest but to maintain its carbon absorbing integrity, or paying for farmers to use methods such as no-till.

Shell is one of the biggest investors in carbon credits – these carbon credits are the main way in which they aim to achieve net zero by 2050. Shell can provide (at an appropriate price) their customers with carbon credits that, for example, match the carbon emissions of the fuel they buy from Shell.

The flaw seems to be that carbon credits are being used not to make good those ‘impossible to avoid’ carbon emissions such as in cement production, but as cover to allow the continued production of fossil fuels whose use can be avoided.

https://www.shell.com/shellenergy/othersolutions/environmental-products.html

(2) https://carboncredits.com/how-do-you-get-carbon-credits/

(3) https://www.weforum.org/stories/2020/11/carbon-credits-what-how-fight-climate-change/

Counting on …day 91

19th June 2025

Yesterday I noted that natural gas (ie methane) produces less carbon dioxide when burnt than either coal or oil. Hydrogen, when that is burnt, produces no carbon dioxide only water. Is hydrogen the green fuel of the future?

Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element in Earth but it rarely exists as a gas, instead being found joined with other elements – eg with oxygen which produces water. It can occasionally be found underground but as there are seldom viable ways of extracting, scientists instead have developed ways of producing hydrogen gas artificially – depending on the process used, a number of artificial hydrogens are available, including grey hydrogen, blue hydrogen and green hydrogen.

Grey hydrogen is made using a process called steam reforming, which brings together natural gas and heated water in the form of steam. As well as hydrogen this process also produces carbon dioxide.

Blue hydrogen uses the same process, but aims to avoid the problem of carbon dioxide emissions by capturing the CO2. As reported previously CCS is costly and not necessarily that efficient.

Green hydrogen uses electricity to split water into its component elements of hydrogen and oxygen. This reaction does not produce CO2 but depending on the supply of the electricty, there may be carbon emissions that form part of the total production. The significant criteria would be the use of renewable electricity.

In Scotland Shell* has been partnering with others in the Acorn project which includes the production of blue hydrogen from natural gas with carbon dioxide being stored under the sea via disused pipelines. (1) This involves substantial investment, including government subsidises. The BBC has reported: “UK Energy Secretary Ed Miliband has confirmed that £200m will be provided to progress the Acorn Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) scheme in Aberdeenshire.” (2)

“The European Commission is facing calls to assess the climate impact of scores of proposed hydrogen projects after data revealed that 90 percent of them could be used to prolong the use of planet-warming natural gas. Companies operating Europe’s existing natural gas infrastructure are seeking to preserve the value of their assets by converting them to carry clean-burning hydrogen to power homes and industry in line with legally-binding climate targets.

“But the data compiled by Brussels-based research and advocacy group Food & Water Action Europe, and shared with DeSmog, shows that 57 percent of 147 hydrogen projects under consideration by the European Commission are designed to also carry natural gas, or “blue” hydrogen made from the fossil fuel. A further 33 percent of projects have failed to rule out carrying fossil-based hydrogen, or have no credible plans to source climate-friendly “green” hydrogen.”

““Greenwashing must be fought, especially when it comes to using public money.”” (3)

https://www.desmog.com/2023/06/22/most-eu-hydrogen-projects-risk-prolonging-use-of-fossil-fuels/

* Shell is, I think still involved with this project, but information is hard to come by. Shell did quietly withdraw from a similar on the Isle of Grain in Kent.

Counting on …day 90

18th June 2025

“Shell believes natural gas and LNG have a critical role to play in the energy transition by producing less carbon emissions than coal when used to generate electricity, helping to maintain grid stability as the share of renewable energy grows, increasingly powering transport and shipping, and providing energy security in the coming decades.” (1)

Is LNG really a green fuel?

Liquid natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that has been made into a liquid so that it can be more readily transported. The liquefaction process involves cooling the gas to -161oC (-259F). The process reduces it to 1/600th of its original un-liquified volume and to half the weight of water. This reduction in volume has made the storage, and the shipping over significant distances, an economic option. It does of course have to be kept at the required supercool temperature throughout. It is only when it is going to fed into the domestic gas grid that is returned to its gaseous state by warming.

Before the liquefaction became a practicable option, natural gas was typically used by consumers in the locality – in the UK our gas came from the North Sea. Now gas can be sourced from across the world and can be stored whilst buyers are found. Significant amounts of this gas is shale gas using fracking processes. The United States is the world’s largest producer of LNG, followed by Australia and Qatar. Russia despite the fall in demand from European customers, is the fourth largest producer with large reserves of has in Siberia.

LNG is 85-95% methane and when it is burnt produces water and carbon dioxide. And the proportion of carbon dioxide produced is 40% less carbon dioxide (CO2) than coal and 30% less than oil (1) allowing LNG to be marketed as a green fuel. However methane is a more harmful greenhouse gas as when it is released into the atmosphere it a greater impact than carbon dioxide in increasing global temperatures.

However the extraction process, especially by fracking, and leakage during the liquefaction and transportation process, gives rise to substantial leakage of methane. A report produced for the Society of Chemical Industry concluded that 66% of greenhouse gas emissions from LNG were released during these stages with only 34% released during the end-use combustion.(2)